NATO Individual Democratic Institutions Research Fellowships (1994-1996)

Why Public Service Broadcasting Eastern vs. Western Europe: Circumstances and Challenge Catalin Preda (Romania) [Back to Index]

Chapter 2 : Western and Eastern European Public Service Radio Broadcasters 2.1. The British Broadcasting Corporation - BBC 2.1.1. History and evolution 1922 18 October - British Broadcasting Company Ltd. formed 1 November - Broadcast receiving licence (10s) introduced 14 November - First daily programmes from 2LO in London 14 December - J.C.W. Reith appointed General Manager of BBC 1923 18 January - Postmaster-General grants BBC licence to broadcast 28 September - Radio Times first published 1924 5 February - Greenwich time signal inaugurated 4 April - First national broadcast to schools 23 April - First broadcast by King George V (opening the British Empire Exhibition in Wembley) 1925 27 July - Daventry LW transmitter opened 1926 4 May - General strike began. In the absence of newspapers, BBC broadcast five news bulletins daily 31 December - British Broadcasting Company Ltd. dissolved 1927 1 January - British Broadcasting Corporation established by Royal Charter. Sir John Reith - Director-General 11 November - Experimental broadcasts to the Empire began from Chelmsford short-wave station 1928 5 March - Ban on broadcasting controversial material lifted 1929 16 January - 'The Listener' first published. 1930 5 February - 'Week in Westminster' first broadcast. 9 March - Start of regional scheme offering alternative radio programme. 1932 1 May - Broadcasting House became BBC headquarters. 19 December - Empire Service inaugurated on short-wave. 1936 11 December - King Edward VIII's abdication broadcast. 1938 3 January - First BBC foreign-language service (Arabic) began. 27 September - Start of European Service (news in French, German and Italian). 1939 1 September - Home Service replaced National and Regional programmes 3 September - Broadcasts by Neville Chamberlain and by King George VI on the declaration of war. 1940 7 January - Forces Programme began. 19 May - Winston Churchill's first broadcast as Prime Minister. 1941 14 January - 'V' campaign broadcasts began in the Belgian Service. 1942 22 March - First daily news bulletin in Morse for the resistance. 1944 10 February - Start of self-imposed '14 Day Rule' which forbid BBC to broadcast material on subjects due to be debated in Parliament. 1945 29 July - Regional broadcasting resumed. Start of Light Programme. 1946 1 June - Combined television and radio licence introduced. 29 September - Third Programme began. 1950 12 February - Formation in London of European Broadcasting Union. 1953 1 January - National Broadcasting Councils for Scotland and Wales established. 1956 18 December - Postmaster-General announced suspension of the '14 Day Rule' edict for an experimental period of six months. 1957 25 July - Prime Minister announced '14 Day Rule' suspended indefinitely. 30 September - Reorganization of radio services. Network Three began. 1959 8 October - BBC covered general election campaign in news broadcasts for the first time. 1965 10 October - 'Immigrants' programmes began on radio and television. 1967 30 September - Radio 1 introduced. Former networks renamed Radio 2, Radio 3 and Radio 4. 8 November - Radio Leicester station opened (start of local radio). 1969 10 July - Publication of 'Broadcasting in the Seventies', initial plans for the future of radio and non-metropolitan broadcasting. 1970 4 April - Radio networks reorganised to introduce more generic broadcasting. 1971 1 February - Radio only licence abolished. 3 October - BBC Programmes Complaints Commission established (disbanded 1981). 1972 19 January - The Post Office control of broadcasting hours ended. 1975 9 June to 04 July - Experimental radio broadcasting from House of Commons proceedings. 1978 3 April - Start of regular radio broadcasts from Parliament. 23 November - Major frequency changes made in Network Radio. 1981 1 June - Broadcasting Complaints Commission started work. 1986 1 April - All BBC commercial activities brought together in BBC Enterprises Ltd. 1988 1 April - Licence fee increase pegged to Retail Price index. 16 May - Setting up of Broadcasting Standards Council announced by Home Secretary. 1 September - BBC External Services renamed BBC World Service. 1989 1 March - BBC issued comprehensive new guidelines for producers. 1990 25 January - 'Funding the Future' report presented. 27 August - Radio 5 began. 1 November - Broadcasting Act received Royal Assent. 1991 3 January - Last issue of 'The Listener' published. 1 March - Charter Review Task Forces began work. 1 April - Licence fee increase pegged below Retail Price Index for one year. 1992-1995 The government presents a 'white paper' on the future of the BBC, to which the corporation responds through a 'green paper'. Three and a half years of debate follow. 1996 7 June - The Director-General announces a massive reorganization of the BBC having as the main goal to prepare the Corporation for entering the digital technology era.

2.1.2. Legal framework The Constitution of the BBC The BBC is a public corporation (a 'body corporate') whose principal object is to provide broadcasting services for general reception at home and abroad. As an organisation, the Corporation is governed by a Royal Charter which defines its objects, powers and obligations, its constitution and the sources and uses of its revenues. A Licence and Agreement, granted by the Home Secretary alongside with the Charter, prescribes the terms and conditions of the Corporation's operations. Subject to the general law of the land, and the provisions of the Charter and Licence and Agreement, the BBC has full editorial and managerial independence in its day-to-day programme and other activities. The powers, responsibilities and obligations laid upon the Corporation are vested in the Board of Governors, who exercise them through a permanent staff headed by the Director-General, as the BBC's chief executive officer, and the Board of Management. The 12 Governors - of whom one is Chairman, another Vice-Chairman, and three more are respectively National Governors for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland - are appointed by the Queen in Council (on the nomination of the Government of the day), normally for five-year terms. While the powers of the Government are in theory extensive, in practice these have never been used to prevent the transmission of any specific programme. In October 1988, however, the Government did use these powers to restrict broadcast coverage of statements by the BBC (and the independent broadcasters) supporting or on behalf of organizations associated with terrorism in Northern Ireland. Since terms overlap, an element of continuity is ensured in a changing membership. The Governors are not required to make broadcasting their sole concern: they are drawn from a wide variety of background and experience, so as to represent the wider public interest, as well as being the ultimate authority for everything the BBC does. Through its directorates, divisions and departments, the BBC is responsible for the whole broadcasting process, from the planning, commissioning and making of radio and television programmes and their technical and engineering infrastructure, through to transmission over the air, by means of its own network of transmitters. It relies, though, on lines and circuits leased or rented from British Telecom for the links between studios and transmitters. Under the Broadcasting Act 1990, the BBC is required to commission a proportion of its originated output (excluding news and daily news-related programmes) from independent producers. There is a relatively small number of things which the BBC may not do. It may not, for example, carry advertising or broadcast subliminal messages. Neither can the Corporation express its own editorial opinion about current affairs or matters of public policy, other than broadcasting. That is not to say, of course, that controversial programmes are never broadcast, but the BBC undertakes to achieve overall impartiality and fairness. The Charter The present Charter came into force on 1 August 1981 and is for a period of 15 years, to 31 December 1996. Like previous BBC Charters since the first was granted in 1927 (so effecting the transition from the British Broadcasting Company to the Corporation), it is the primary constitutional document. It lays down the powers and responsibilities of the BBC in meeting its objectives of providing domestic radio and television and overseas broadcasting services. It sets out the composition of the Board of Governors, their appointment and tenure, and their duties. It requires the BBC to appoint National Broadcasting Councils for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, a General Advisory Council and Regional and Local Radio Advisory Councils, and gives it discretion to appoint other advisory bodies. The Charter also deals, in broad terms, with matters of employment and staff relations, and it requires arrangements for obtaining from the public views and opinions of its programmes and for considering criticism and suggestions so obtained. In its financial affairs, the BBC is given the authority in the Charter to receive funds provided by the Parliament (in effect the proceeds of the Licence Fee) and to use them in furtherance of its objectives. The Corporation is required to submit audited accounts, as part of its annual report, for presentation to Parliament. The Licence and Agreement The second constitutional document governing the BBC's activities (and doing so in greater detail) is the Licence and Agreement. The Corporation is required to obtain this from the Home Secretary who, in 1974, took over responsibility for broadcasting from the Minister of Posts and Telecommunications (as that Minister had, in its turn, earlier taken over from the Postmaster-General). The major part of the Licence and Agreement (which arises from the Wireless and Telegraphy Acts) is concerned with the terms under which the BBC is allowed to establish and use transmitting stations and apparatus for wireless telegraphy. Other important clauses reserve certain powers to the Home Secretary, in relation to programmes, and further clauses deal with aspects of programmes and with finance. The Governors of the BBC The BBC is headed by a Board of Governors, whose members are appointed by the Queen in Council on the advice of the Government. - The Governors, who are drawn from a variety of social and professional backgrounds, legally constitute the BBC. They appoint the Director-General and other senior staff and determine broad policy, and through they leaves the day-to-day functioning of the BBC to its managers. The Governors also represent the public interest in broadcasting. They are ultimately responsible for maintaining programme standards -- for example, ensuring that controversial matters are treated impartially and that the BBC provides a balanced service covering a wide range of subject matter. The National Broadcasting Councils The Governors' responsibility for the programmes is shared in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland with the National Broadcasting Councils. The main function of these Councils is to control the policy and content of those programmes in the radio and television services of the BBC which are provided primarily for reception in the countries they represent. In this, they are required to have full regard to the distinctive culture, language, interests and tastes of the peoples of their countries. They may also advise the Corporation on any other broadcasting matters which may affect the peoples in these countries. Constitutionally, the Council's link with the Corporation is through their Chairmen, who are Governors of the BBC and bear the title of National Governor. The members of the National Broadcasting Councils are appointed by the Corporation on the recommendation of panels nominated for the purpose by the BBC's General Advisory Council from among its own members. The Advisory Councils and Committees The BBC Charter requires the Corporation to appoint a General Advisory Council, regional advisory councils in each of its broadcasting regions in England, and local radio advisory councils in localities served by BBC Local Radio stations. The Charter also empowers the BBC to appoint persons or committees to advise the BBC on 'matters connected with the broadcasting services, business, operations and affairs of the Corporation'. The BBC has taken full advantage of these powers over the years and currently appoints advisers to serve on some 70 bodies, including specialist committees on education, religion, appeals and rural affairs. The General Advisory Council (GAC) stands at the centre of the BBC's advisory structure. Although the appointment of a GAC was not made a formal requirement until the BBC was granted its fourth Charter, in 1952, the Council was in fact established much earlier, in 1934, on the BBC's own initiative to 'secure the constructive criticism and advice of representative men and women over the whole field of its activities'. Membership of the GAC includes the Chairmen of the BBC's English regional councils and the Chairmen of the various specialist central advisory bodies, all of whom are ex-officio members. Other members are appointed for a term of four years. Every effort is made to appoint members from all parts of the UK and from as wide an area of experience as possible. Regional Advisory Councils: The Advisory Councils for the three English regions advise the BBC on the policy and the content of the programmes provided primarily for reception in their respective regions, and on all matters relating to other broadcasting services of the BBC that affect the interest of their listeners (and viewers).

2.1.3. BBC Network Radio BBC Network Radio is based at Broadcasting House in central London. It broadcasts annually around 35,000 hours of programmes on its five networks, which serve an audience of 27-28 million across the United Kingdom. Radio 1 is a 24-hour rock and pop music station, catering for all tastes from the charts to new music, classic hits, heavy metal, dance and world music. There are also music documentaries, news programmes, social action campaigns, comedy, quizzes and live concerts. Radio 2 is a 24-hour entertainment network firmly rooted in public service broadcasting. A daytime mix of good music and conversation is complemented by jazz, big band, light classical, country and folk music in the evenings and at weekends, interspersed with comedy and quizzes. Radio 3 mainly broadcasts classical music but also jazz and traditional music from all around the World. The network draws on the resources of the BBC's five orchestras, commission around 30 new works each year, and broadcasts all of the Proms. Speech programmes include a wide range of drama, documentaries, science, poetry, and news about the arts. Radio 4 is the main speech network and the prime carrier of radio news and current affairs. Among the diversity of programmes it offers are daily dramas and stories, documentaries, live magazine programmes, regular series on science, the law, religion, books, money, gardening, natural history, and programmes for people with disabilities as well as the best conversation on radio. There are also plays every day and humour with sit-coms, quizzes and satire. Radio 5 is Britain's newest national network, launched on 27 August 1990, and it has programmes for the whole family. It carries the most comprehensive sports coverage available, education from pre-school to Open University, speech programmes for children - including plays and features, live youth programmes and family magazines, plus highlights from the World Service of the BBC. Regional Broadcasting is a large and important part of the BBC. The three national regions - Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, and the three English regions - North, Midlands & East, and South, employ a quarter of the BBC's staff and make a wide range of programmes for local, regional and national audiences. About 4,000 hours of network radio come from its production centres outside London. BBC Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland provide radio services on Radio Scotland, Radio Ulster, Radio Wales and Radio Cymru. Each has community or 'opt-out' stations to serve the interests of local audiences. More than ten million listeners a week tune in to the BBC's 39 local radio stations in England. Their trademark is news and information and, as well as reflecting important local issues, they play a key role in the BBC's national and international news-gathering operation. The BBC World Service is part of the wider BBC, operating under the same Royal Charter, and its Managing Director is a member of the BBC Board of Management. The radio services are based at Bush House in central London. Unlike the BBC's domestic radio service, World Service radio broadcasts are not funded by a licence fee on set owners, but by a grant from Parliament, with an amount of about one pound per listener per annum. The BBC Monitoring service is a part of the World Service, and it transcribes foreign radio and TV broadcasts. Parliament has the final say as to the languages in which World Service broadcasts its radio programmes and the number of hours they are on the air, but the World Service has complete editorial control. The BBC has also many other public services, but also commercial ones. BBC Enterprises Ltd. is the commercial arm of the BBC. Profits from its growing list of activities, which include programme sales overseas, book and magazine publishing and audio and video cassettes, are reinvested in the new BBC productions. BBC World Service TV Ltd. is a wholly owned, self-funding of the BBC, set up in 1991 and offering programmes from 11 to 24 hours to Europe, Asia and Africa. BBC Subscription TV Ltd. began night-time transmission of subscription television services in June 1992. Called BBC Select it initially offered programmes in the broad area of education, training and information.

2.1.4. Perspectives The immediate perspective for the BBC Radio was announced recently - on 7 June 1996, by the General Director of the Corporation John Birt. A massive reorganization of both the BBC Radio and the BBC TV will take place having as the main goal to prepare the Corporation for entering the digital technology era: The reorganization will consist essentially in the amalgamation of the leading bodies from radio and television. The elimination of some parallel structures will have as consequences, among other things, the reducing of the staff and of the costs, but also a better quality of the programmes and broadcasting. One of the main result will be a unique News & Current Affairs Service, that will work both for the British public and for the international one. The changes will also conduct to the complete separation of the broadcasting departments from the departments producing the programmes. The News & Current Affairs Department of the BBC World Service will merge with its internal counterpart from the domestic service, creating a new Department for Internal and International News. Through this action the special character of the World Service will be however maintained, the Director-General stressed. The British government announced immediately that it is to block what it called "the widely criticised proposals by the BBC": The British Foreign Secretary, Malcom Rifkind said in an interview with the prestigious 'Daily Mail' that he will not allow the World Service's newsgathering operations to be merged with those of the domestic BBC. "Commissioning and programme making cannot be taken out of Bush House" (World Service headquarters in central London), he said. The 'Daily Mail' reported also that Mr. Rifkind said he will call for a thorough management review of the World Service, which the Foreign Office funds to the tune of 175 million pounds ($270 million) a year. The proposal for merger made by BBC Director-General John Birt has been also attacked by members of the Parliament, public figures and former BBC senior executives. They all say that such a move would damage the World Service's international reputation for objective journalism that has won it 140 million regular listeners in 42 languages around the world. The Foreign Secretary Malcom Rifkind met BBC chairman Sir Christopher Bland on July 24 and discussed concerns about the proposed changes in the Corporation. They decided to create a commission for better studying this proposal. Afterwards, Foreign Office minister lady Lynda Chalker said the BBC had given assurances that the quality of the World Service would not be allowed to suffer. The matter is still on debate and a final decision has not yet been taken, but a Foreign Office official was quoted by the 'Daily Mail' saying that Mr. Rifkind would give soon to the management of the BBC the order to abandon the project and would insist that the World Service must remain in Bush House. The 'Daily Mail' reminded that BBC World Service totally depends on the subvention of $270 million a year granted by Foreign Office.